As an important derivative of graphene, graphene oxide not only has the advantages of abundant source, simple preparation procedure, and low cost, but also has excellent mechanical properties, wear resistance and adsorption properties. In addition, the reduction product of graphene oxide shows excellent electrical and thermal conductivity. Therefore, graphene oxide is an ideal filler for polymer-based nanocomposites. In recent years, with the continuous innovation of the preparation methods of composite materials, polymer-based graphene oxide nanocomposites have developed rapidly, and have achieved large-scale applications in the fields of energy storage, flame retardant and so on, which has an important leading role in the further development and application of polymer-based graphene oxide nanocomposites. This paper systematically introduces the modification methods of graphene oxide, reviews the research progress of polymer-based graphene oxide nanocomposites, and prospects the development prospects of polymer-based graphene oxide nanocomposites.